University Writing Center

Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonants for emphasis or poetic effect.

Amplification (also, copiousness) means saying much about one thing. Writers may intentionally develop a point in many ways so that it can be shown in different lights or emphasized.

An allusion is a brief reference to a historical or literary figure, event, or object that the target audience would respect, thus bringing respect to the writer using the reference. For example, allusions to the Bible and Shakespeare are common among English and American writers.

An analogy is a comparison between two things. Analogies can be used to make a point or idea memorable: comparing lips to a rose or school to a prison. They are often used in extended form in arguments. An argument based on analogy, for example, is as follows: advertising cigarettes is like manslaughter. Arguments by analogy are easily refuted since analogies can only hold so far. A false analogy is one that breaks down easily, for example, baseball is like ballet. (Baseball and ballet don’t have enough in common for the analogy to hold.) See also metaphor and simile.

An appeal is an attempt to earn audience approval or agreement by means of persuasive techniques. Three common methods include appeals through logos (logic of the argument), pathos (appeal to the emotion of the argument), or ethos (character or authority of the writer).

Arrangement (also, organization)deals with how the parts of an essay are ordered. Points of emphasis, for example, include both the beginnings or ends of paragraphs and the introduction or conclusion to the whole essay. Arrangement should be considered in light of the audience and purpose of the paper. For example, writers who want to make a strong argument against an opponent may move the refutation section of an essay to the beginning or end, but they will not bury it in the middle.

An assumption is a step in the process of argument which writers hope (or assume) their target audiences will take for granted as true or logical. If the assumption is warranted, justified, or proven to be true, the argument will be recognized as sound. However, if writers miscalculate their audience’s acceptance of the assumption, that is, if the audience judges it as unwarranted, untrue, or based purely on opinion, the argument will be built on a weak foundation and may fail.

The writer has authority when the audience believes the author knows what he or she is talking about. Writers may appeal to external and respected authorities (experts) to strengthen their arguments.

Argument using cause and effect makes claims about real, or potential, consequences of an action or proposal. Although absolute and distinct causes are hard to prove, writers may argue that a particular effect was caused by something. Or, inversely, writers may argue that the effect of a certain action has a specific cause.

A claim (also assertion)is a statement that something is, or is not, so. Claims may be taken at face value because the writer is sincere or believable. However, if a claim is not likely to be readily accepted, it must be supported by evidence. A claim backed by evidence is an argument. The thesis statement of an essay often contains its major claim.

Common ground is the point at which groups in general disagreement can agree. Writers use the technique of starting from common ground if their target audience is likely to oppose their claim or reject their arguments.

An argument from definition is based on definitions of key words, including arguing from nature, category, or class. Writers may argue against euthanasia by defining the nature of euthanasia as murder, which they can assume their target audience will consider unacceptable. Or writers may argue that athletes are dancers by defining athlete and dancer and showing that they belong in the same category. Finally, writers may argue by placing all members of a group in classes which they have defined. They might classify Aggies according to their social and political activism: heavily involved, involved in one cause, participants only for personal gain, and apathetic. Each class would be defined, and examples of such Aggies would be presented.

Key terms must be defined, definition of terms, when the target audience is likely to disagree or when they come from a very different background or discourse community from the writer. For example, in an argument about UFOs, the writer might need to define unidentified flying objects

Further Reading

• http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm takes you to a dictionary of rhetorical terms such as you may already know scuh as alliteration as well as to more obscure terms scuh as aposiopesis or diacope, and many more.
• http://www.writingcentre.ubc.ca/workshop/tools/rhet1.htm – This site from the University of British Columbia includes a detailed list of questions to ask as you are conducting a rhetorical analysis.